Perfect competition Essay Example for Free

Perfect competition Essay Monopoly and monopolistic competitions, basic concepts monopoly  means a  market situation  in which there is only a single seller and large no. of buyers. whereas  monopolistic competition  is a market situation in which there is large no. of sellers and large no. of buyers. in monopolistic competition, close substitutes are there in the sense that products are different in terms of size, colour,packaging,brand,price etc. as in case of soap,toothpaste etc. but in monopoly, there is no close substitute of the good,if any, it will be a remote substitute like in India, Indian railways has its monopoly but its remote substitutes are present like bus and air service. in monopolistic competition, there is aggressive advertising but in monopoly, there is no advertising at all or a very little. in monopolistic competition,demand curve faced by the firm is more elastic because of availability of close substitutes. it means if a firm raises its price, it will loose its large market share as customers in large will shift to close substitutes present in the market. But in monopoly, the demand curve faced by the firm is less elastic because of no close substitutes. if means if the firm raises its price, demand will not fall in a large quantity as it is only one in the market. u have to understand that the four different kinds, perfect, monopolistic, oligopoly, monopoly are on a spectrum with perfect and monopoly on the extremes, monopolistic is very similar to perfect, and monopoly is different that its a hard market to enter, because theres very few firms and require a big budget to get started. look up the graphs for these competitions and you should have a better understanding MONOPOLY IN TELECOMMUNICATION . Competition in Telecommunications Services Experience has demonstrated that free and open competition benefits individual consumers and societies as a whole by ensuring lower prices, new and better products and services, and expanded consumer choice. The benefits of competition are readily seen in todays telecommunications sector. Dynamic technological change is resulting in new services and systems that provide innovative solutions to communications needs across the globe. As a result, telecommunications is becoming increasingly important to the efficiency and effectiveness of private and public sector institutions. In this environment of rapid change, a competitive marketplace will tap the potential of the telecommunications sector to serve the economic and social well-being of all citizens. BENEFITS OF COMPETITION Free and open competition benefits individual consumers and the global community by ensuring lower prices, new and better products and services, and greater consumer choice than occurs under monopoly conditions. In an open market, producers compete to win customers by lowering prices, developing new services that best meet the needs of customers. A competitive market promotes innovation by rewarding producers that invent, develop, and introduce new and innovative products and production processes. By doing so, the wealth of the society as a whole is increased. In a competitive environment, businesses that fail to understand and react to consumer needs face the loss of customers and declining profits. A policy framework to establish, foster, and regulate competition is critical to the delivery of benefits expected and demanded by consumers. In other words, competition rewards entrepreneurship, responsiveness, and enthusiasm; it punishes sluggishness and indifference. Because of the increasing importance of the telecommunications sector to the overall economy, countries can ill afford the sluggishness and indifference that so often characterize the provision of products and services under monopoly conditions. As developments in technology continue to produce efficient and exciting communications services, societies may be significantly disadvantaged if they forego the rewards of entrepreneurship and responsiveness associated with open, competitive telecommunications markets. POLICY GOALS TO ACHIEVE COMPETITIVE MARKETS In order to achieve the benefits of competition described above, governments and regulators must establish an appropriate policy framework to govern the telecommunications sector. First, governments should remove legal barriers that protect existing monopoly providers from competition by new entrants. Second, policymakers should take affirmative steps to promote competition in sectors of the market that were previously closed to competition. Examples of these steps include adopting policies that encourage multiple methods and modes of market entry. Third, policymakers should consider introducing competitive safeguards to protect against the exercise of market power by incumbent carriers during the transition to competition. The most fundamental of these competitive safeguards involves regulation of the terms and conditions governing interconnection with the existing monopoly providers network. In the United States, although important steps were made to promote competition in the telecommunications sector prior to passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the law firmly established the intent to provide for a pro-competitive, deregulatory national policy framework designed to accelerate private sector deployment of advanced telecommunications and information technologies and services to all Americans by opening all telecommunications markets to competition. EFFECTS OF COMPETITION IN THE TELECOMMUNICATION SECTOR The benefits of introducing competition in telecommunications markets are apparent in all segments of the telecommunications market. For instance, competition in the United States and many other countries in long distance and international telecommunications services has led to a dramatic decline in consumer rates for these services, as well as a dramatic increase in demand and a substantial increase in investment. International telecommunications services can be particularly important to the development of a stable and robust economy linked to the global marketplace. The 1997 WTO Agreement on Basic Telecommunications Services ushered in a new era for telecommunications competition in many countries of the world. As part of that agreement, 72 countries have made commitments to open their telecommunications markets to foreign suppliers of basic telecommunications services. As these countries implement their commitments, dramatic change has occurred in their telecommunications markets. In many countries, there are several new providers of international and domestic telecommunications services, and prices are dramatically lower. As a result, increased competition has led to lower international settlement rates in many countries which, in turn, has led to lower calling prices for consumers. Lower calling prices means that people can afford to make more calls, more often, creating closer ties between family and friends in different countries and strengthening business relationships. Thus, introducing competition in international telecommunications markets produces benefits throughout a countrys economy. In addition, as part of the WTO Agreement, 49 countries made commitments to open their satellite service markets. These commitments have helped increase the ability of global and regional satellite providers to obtain the requisite authorizations for their systems. Similarly, in many countries private investment and competition in the provision of terrestrial wireless telecommunications infrastructure has led to declining prices for, and widespread use of, wireless telephone service. In areas where teledensity can increase, moreover, price reductions may expand the number of households that can afford service. This increased demand may make build-out decisions more attractive. For example, in Chile, lower prices increased traffic by 260% from 1994 to 1997. In 1987, there were 6. 7 phones per 100 households in Chile; this number rose to 11 in 1992 and to 15. 2 in 1996. As lower prices stimulate greater demand, an overall increase in revenues results despite additional providers in the market. In the U. S. long distance market, lower prices, in combination with an expanding market for services, have offset revenue loss from price reductions and the decrease in market share. For example, while ATTs long distance market share fell from 90% in 1984 to 45% in 1997, its revenues increased from $35 billion to $40 billion during this same period. Thus, although ATT lost market share, its revenues increased in a competitive marketplace. The benefits from introducing competition in international and domestic telecommunications markets can be fully realized, however, only when market participants have the incentive to compete vigorously to attract the greatest amount of business. It has been the U. S.experience that these incentives exist only where there is open entry into the telecommunications services market. Where entry is limited, or where only one or two new entrants are allowed to compete against the incumbent carrier, the benefits of competition are limited as well. For instance, when cellular telephone service was first introduced into the United States in the 1980s there were only two licensees in each market. As a result, prices remained relatively high and demand was more limited. After additional licenses were authorized in each market, priced dropped, new services were introduced and demand exploded. BUILDING A TELECOMMUNICATIONS SECTOR AS A PART OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Developing countries face many infrastructure challenges. While roads, water, and electricity are obvious fundamental requirements, development of a strong communications and information system is vital for the country to survive and prosper. As global developments increasingly push competition and its benefits, developing countries can realize these benefits in part through encouraging the establishment of an indigenous telecommunications sector. And one highly effective way to achieve this is to promote and nurture the growth of small and entrepreneurial entities within that sector. The United States experience provides some insight. Historically, most of the cutting- edge commercial and technology breakthroughs in the United States have been developed by individual entrepreneurs or small businesses, from Alexander Graham Bell to Bill Gates. Additionally, Americas 22 million small businesses produce more than half of the nations gross domestic product, and businesses employing fewer than twenty people have created all 99.99 percent of the nations new jobs in recent years. Such a phenomenal success story is due not only to the free enterprise system and profit motive, but also to a carefully developed government policy of supporting and nurturing small businesses. The U. S. has implemented numerous federal programs to assist small businesses in harnessing the engines of economic growth and innovation loan guarantee programs, technical assistance programs, investment programs, anti- discrimination regulatory programs, outreach efforts, information and training programs. Congress established the Telecommunications Development Fund, some $25 million, to invest in promising new telecommunications businesses. Obviously the environment and situation of most developing countries is quite different from that in the United States, and overcoming an embedded monopoly telecom provider is something weve never had to do. Still, some basic steps privatizing, establishing an independent regulator, developing helpful tax and labor laws, a willingness to waive regulatory and filing requirements to the extent possible can produce great benefits. A developing country could make it a condition for foreign carriers and operators serving seeking to provide service to (or within) its territory to undertake efforts to promote or support indigenous and start-up businesses. Supporting the growth of small and entrepreneurial telecom businesses by various means can lead to permanent economic gains for developing nations economies, and to full participation in the global telecom marketplace. METHODS OF INTRODUCING COMPETITION IN THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS SECTOR Restricting methods and modes of entry can cause investment distortions and result in higher prices to consumers. It is by allowing the marketplace to select preferred approaches that policymakers encourage efficient entry. Three methods are typically used to introduce competition into the telecommunications sector: * Facilities-based competition * Unbundling of network elements * Resale In addition, a technologically neutral policy fosters innovative systems and alternative facilities designed to meet the needs of the marketplace. For example, the construction of a wireless network may be more appropriate in some markets than the development of a competing wireline carrier. Facilities-Based Competition. When a new entrant constructs a network using its own facilities to reach its customers (i. e. , without using the incumbent carriers network), that type of entry is commonly referred to as full facilities-based competition. By developing a new network, a facilities-based competitor is not constrained by existing, possibly obsolete embedded plant and instead can install the newest, most efficient technology. As a result, the competitor will be able to supply new or additional services such as faster transmission and switching speeds or higher bandwidth capacity, and may be able to do so at lower costs than the incumbent. Facilities-based competitors not only directly benefit their customers but also create competitive pressure for the incumbent to upgrade its network. In addition, facilities-based entry allows the marketplace to drive competition with less regulatory presence. As discussed more fully below, full facilities-based entrants still require interconnection for the mutual exchange of traffic with other providers. New entrants customers need to be able to communicate with subscribers on other networks, especially the incumbents network where the majority of users obtain their service. Without the ability to interconnect on fair terms, a new facilities-based competitor cannot survive. Use of Unbundled Network Elements While full facilities-based competition has many advantages, it may not always be practical for a new entrant to construct an entire network. For example, it may be economically feasible to construct switching and long distance facilities but infeasible to construct local loops or last mile facilities that connect to customer locations. This might be due to economies of scale or the practical difficulties associated with acquiring needed rights-of-way. Thus, a second entry route is one in which the new entrant constructs portions of a network and purchases access to the relevant essential facilities of the incumbent providers network, such as the local loop. This method of entry is referred to as using unbundled network elements, and typically must be required by law or regulation. Entry through the use of unbundled network elements has a number of important advantages. First, it reduces entry barriers by allowing new entrants to begin offering service without having to construct an entire network. Second, on a longer term basis, it prevents the incumbent carrier from exploiting any residual monopoly power that may arise through remaining economies of scale or from the practical difficulties of obtaining needed rights-of-way, antenna sites for wireless systems, etc. Third, it allows new entrants additional avenues of innovation. For example, new entrants can purchase unbundled loops from the established carrier and use them with entirely different types of technologies (e. g. , packet switches based upon Internet Protocol (IP)) than those employed by the incumbent carrier. In this arrangement, consumers benefit from these new and better services and additional choices that competition provides. Regulatory intervention is necessary in order to require the incumbent carrier to unbundle its network and to price the resulting elements at economically efficient prices. More specifically, incumbents should be required to provide any requesting telecommunications carrier non-discriminatory access to elements of the incumbents network on an unbundled basis on rates, terms and conditions that are just, reasonable, and non-discriminatory. Incumbents should be required to provide any reasonable method of interconnection, including physical collocation or virtual collocation, or interconnection at a point between the incumbents and new entrants network. In the United States, the Telecommunications Act of 1996 identified a minimum list of network elements that incumbent local exchange carriers must unbundle. These network elements include: local loops, network interface devices, local and tandem switching capabilities, interoffice transmission facilities, signaling and call-related databases, operations support systems, and operator services and directory assistance facilities. In addition, new entrants should have access to pole lines, ducts, conduits, and rights-of-way owned or controlled by the incumbent. Resale In the telecommunications context, resale occurs when competitors obtain a service at a discounted or wholesale rate from the underlying, established carrier and then sell the service to their own customers. Resale can serve a multi-faceted role in promoting and sustaining competition in telecommunications services. Resale may be an effective entry vehicle for new entrants that may initially lack the necessary capital to build their own networks. Resale may also allow small competitors, which will not become facilities-based providers, to offer service. In addition, resellers may stimulate usage of the incumbents network, and thus may benefit the incumbent facilities-based provider and further growth of the entire sector. Moreover, this competition may help to keep prices lower for consumers, increase consumer choice, and ultimately stimulate economic growth. Experience in the U. S. long distance market suggests that resale can yield significant public benefits. Resale competition takes the form of arbitrage, where a reseller purchases a large number of minutes at a quantity discount and resells them to small customers at prices lower than the retail prices otherwise available to those customers. By providing affordable prices for the customer, resellers stimulate demand and thus compel facilities-based carriers to bring their prices closer to actual costs. At the same time, the increased competition from resellers expands the availability of innovative services, such as new billing terms and alternative rate structures. In particular, resellers can create consumer value by creating different billing plans or targeting their marketing to under-served groups within the community. Many countries have committed to a policy of resale as part of the WTO Basic Telecommunications Agreement to provide market access for basic telecommunications services. For smaller countries, resale provides some of the benefits of competition even if the total amount of telecommunications traffic generated is insufficient to attract multiple facilities-based carriers. Resellers may resell an entire service without modification, which is referred to as Total Service Resale. Resellers may also choose to obtain some services from the underlying carrier and combine them with services that they provide themselves. For example, a carrier may offer long distance services using its own switching facilities but lease long haul facilities from the incumbent provider. Resale also allows providers to offer bundles of different services without actually constructing the necessary facilities. By doing so, they can achieve certain economies in terms of marketing while providing a package of services for the convenience of their customers. For example, a local exchange carrier can offer long distance services without constructing long haul facilities. Similarly, a carrier offering both local and long- distance services could add mobile services to its package without constructing its own wireless network. In many industries resale occurs as a natural part of the development of markets. However, in telecommunications, a dominant carrier may be required by law or regulation to make its services available for resale. In particular, a regulatory requirement may be necessary to force the underlying carrier to offer services at a wholesale rate. In a competitive market, however, some providers may find a source of revenue in the provision of services on a wholesale basis. This often occurs when the facilities-based carrier has excess capacity on its network. In the U. S. long distance market, some carriers have constructed nationwide fiber-optic networks with the intent of offering transmission services on a wholesale basis to other carriers. Real market experience has shown that resale can spur competition. The growth of competition in the U. S. long distance market resulted from a combination of the facilities-based and resale competition models. From the early stages of long distance competition, facilities-based providers and resellers have actively competed against one another. This approach resulted in more affordable rates, new service offerings, and numerous new entrants. Despite the obvious benefits of resale, it has limitations. First of all, the reseller is limited to a greater or lesser extent by the technical features and functions of the underlying carriers network. This limits the ability of the reseller to innovate. Second, resale alone does not put competitive pressure on wholesale rates and services because the underlying carrier may not be subject to competitive pressures to innovate at the wholesale level. This means that the regulator must retain some degree of control over the pricing, terms and conditions of the wholesale offering. INTERCONNECTION, THE KEY TO COMPETITIVE SUCCESS The key to competition within telecommunications services is the ability of networks to interconnect. Interconnection allows communications to occur across networks, linking competitors so customers of different networks can communicate with one another. For competition to be successful at maximizing consumer benefits and innovation in the telecommunications market, carriers that compete for customers must also provide competitors with access to those customers. Shared access to customers occurs through interconnection, and access to all customers is necessary both for successful entry and for continued competition. If the incumbent, with the vast majority of customers, does not interconnect with new entrants, it is unlikely that the new entrants will remain economically viable. A regulatory framework is needed to aid in the transition from a monopoly environment to a competitive environment because a monopoly or dominant provider has a strategic interest to keep out or minimize competitors in its market. As a result, the monopoly or dominant provider has a strong incentive to limit interconnection. Therefore, a regulator that is independent of any operator and of inappropriate political influence should adopt rules that give new entrants bargaining strength equal to the incumbents. The price of interconnection (or transport and termination), for example, could serve as a significant barrier to entry for new networks. An incumbent monopolist has an incentive to demand a high price to terminate calls originating on a new entrants network and pay nothing for calls originating on its own network. In the United States, transport and termination charges are reciprocal and based on the long run incremental cost of providing the transport and termination on the incumbents network. Thus, the primary purpose of mandated interconnection is to foster a competitive environment that is fair to all competitors. Because the incumbent service provider has the vast majority of customers, a new entrant must be able to interconnect in order to provide full access to its customers. Without the ability to interconnect, new entrants would be severely restricted in their ability to compete with the incumbent. REGULATORY TOOLS FOR PROTECTING AGAINST THE EXERCISE OF MARKET POWER DURING THE TRANSITION TO COMPETITION Special problems may arise when a telecommunications carrier with monopoly power in the provision of a particular service or facility wants to offer a competitive service that is dependent upon the use of the monopoly service or facility. This may occur, for example, where competition has been introduced in the long distance and international markets but the local market remains a monopoly. The two problems are cost- shifting/cross-subsidization and discrimination. The first problem arises if the monopoly service is regulated on a rate-of-return (profit) basis. If so, there is an incentive for the carrier with monopoly power to shift costs from the competitive service to the monopoly service. Shifting costs in this manner artificially raises the price of the monopoly service and allows the carrier to charge below-cost rates for the competitive service. This results in the captive customers paying above- cost rates for the monopoly services and hampers the development of a viable market for the competitive services. An example of this situation could occur when a carrier with monopoly power in the provision of local facilities or services wants to enter the long distance market or information services market. The second problem occurs when control over an essential service or facility necessary for a competitive service enables the monopoly carrier to discriminate in favor of its own competitive offering. For example, a carrier with monopoly power in the provision of local facilities or services has the incentive to discriminate in favor of its own long distance or information service. This discrimination may manifest itself in the form of better quality interconnection or faster installation times for needed facilities or services. What follows is an overview of some of the tools that are available to policymakers and regulators to discourage or prevent cost-shifting/cross-subsidization and discrimination. These tools or techniques can be used alone or in combination. The more stringent techniques may be appropriate when and where the threat is greatest. Less stringent techniques may be appropriate as competition takes hold in the previously monopolized market. Outright Prohibition on Providing the Competitive Product or Service One technique for preventing a carrier with monopoly power from cross-subsidizing and discriminating in the provision of a competitive service is to prohibit the carrier from entering the competitive market. Outright prohibitions have been and are being used in the United States. For example, the original agreement (Consent Decree) that led to the divestiture of the Bell Operating Companies from ATT prohibited the former from certain activities, including the provision of certain long distance services and information services. Under the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the Bell Operating Companies are prohibited from offering long distance services and alarm services until certain conditions are met. While outright prohibition prevents cross-subsidization and discrimination, it may also deny the public the benefits of possible economies of scale or scope that may be derived if the carrier is allowed to provide the competitive service. Outright prohibition may also deny the public the benefits of innovation that might come from the participation of the monopoly carrier in the competitive market. Price Caps for Regulated Monopoly Services. The incentive to shift costs from a competitive service to a monopoly service exists under profit regulation. Under price cap regulation, the prices of the monopoly services are capped (indexed to inflation and expected productivity increases). Price cap regulation has a number of advantages, including incentives for the carrier to be more efficient. It also discourages the monopoly provider from shifting costs from the competitive activity to the monopoly activity, because if the price of the monopoly service is capped, there is no incentive to shift costs from the competitive service to the monopoly service. Separate Subsidiary Requirement Under this requirement, the carrier with monopoly power is allowed to provide the competitive service, but only through a separate subsidiary or affiliate. The separate subsidiary requirement is combined with an obligation that the monopoly carrier treat the affiliated company no better than it treats unaffiliated providers of the competitive service. In other words, the monopoly carrier must deal with the affiliate on an arms- length basis. The regulator has the ability to control the degree of separateness. Examples of the requirements for separateness can include requirements that the monopoly provider and its affiliate: * Maintain separate books of account * Utilize separate officers and personnel * Employ separate marketing activities * Not share common equipment or facilities * Adhere to certain restrictions on information flows that would unfairly benefit the competitive affiliate In addition, a typical requirement is that if the affiliate must obtain any transmission services from the monopoly provider, it must do so on a tariffed basis. Tariffing Requirements Tariffing is a fundamental technique traditionally used to protect users (both consumers and other carriers) against discrimination. Tariffing requires the regulated monopolist to file tariffs explaining its service rates, terms and conditions with the regulatory agency and to adhere to those rates, terms and conditions once the tariff is filed. Through the tariff and enforcement processes, which include opportunities for public comment, the regulator has some ability to prevent cross-subsidization and discrimination. Accounting Separation A requirement to maintain separate books of account can be adopted even without the imposition of a separate subsidiary requirement. Accounting separation typically requires the regulated monopoly provider to set up and maintain separate books of account for the competitive activity and to adhere to prescribed methods of separating costs. This provides a degree of protection against cross-subsidization. Imputation Requirements. An imputation requirement obligates the regulated monopolist to charge the same amount for a service or facility provided to a competitive affiliate or operation that it charges to an unaffiliated provider, and to include that amount in the price it charges for the competitive service. Service Quality Reporting Requirements A service quality reporting requirement obligates the regulated monopolist to collect date and report on the quality of the services provided to both affiliated and unaffiliated competitors. This helps regulators detect and correct discrimination in the provision of essential services or facilities to competitors. Resale Requirements As discussed earlier, a resale requirement has a number of advantages in promoting competition. Resale can also help prevent cross-subsidization. For example, where a carrier has market power in the provision of switched services but there is competition in the provision of private lines, the carrier may try to increase the price of the switched service in order to cross-subsidize and thus under-price its private line offering. If the carrier is required to allow the resale of the private line offerings, however, entrepreneurs could combine the private lines with their own switching, and undercut the prices of the monopolists switched service offering. This has the effect of discouraging the carrier with market power from engaging in cross-subsidization. Unbundling Requirements An unbundling requirement forces the regulated monopolist to make network elements available to competitors on an unbundled basis under rates, terms and conditions that are just, reasonable, and non-discriminatory. To provide incentives for entry, the price of an unbundled element should equal the long run incremental cost of providing the element. Unbundling was discussed earlier as a way of lowering entry barriers and promoting innovation, but it also guards against anti-competitive tying arrangements, which arise when the monopolist requires a customer (e. g. , a competitor) to buy something unneeded as a condition of acquiring an essent.

The Impact Of Penal Populism On Policy Change Criminology Essay

The Impact Of Penal Populism On Policy Change Criminology Essay This paper explores the impact of penal populism on policy change, examining definitions of penal populism and managerialism and evaluating their importance as determinants of policy change. For the purpose of this paper, the focus will be on the campaign for Sarahs Law and the impact on policies relating to sex offenders that arose from the campaign. According to Pratt (2007) the origins of penal populism lie in the work of Sir Anthony Bottoms (1995) who used the term populist punitiveness (Bottoms 1995 cited in Pratt 2007: 2) to discuss one of the main influences on contemporary criminal justice and penal systems (Pratt 2007: 2). The term punitiveness refers to the publics disapproval and their harsh attitudes in response to offenders (Green 2009: 520). The notion of punitiveness suggests a disproportionate use of sanctions and consequently a deviation from the principle of proportionality (Matthews 2005: 179). In the 1980s it was conceded by senior conservative politicians that in penal matters it was the popular press rather than informed opinion that counted (Ryan 2003: 117). Populism is a political response favouring popularity rather than political considerations (Roberts et al. 2003: 3) and penal populism is a label, given to politicians who devise punitive penal policies that are popular with the general public (Pratt 2007: 8). Both penal populism and populist punitiveness are used to refer to the presumption that it is the harsh attitudes of the general public that drives and justifies a harsher stance on crime and punishment policies (Green 2009: 521). Yet Roberts et al. (2003:5) argue that the electoral advantage of a policy takes precedence over any penal effectiveness and rather than attempting to reduce crime rates, penal populism is merely politicians pursuing a set of policies to win votes. Crime is socially constructed, politically-influenced and historically variable Punis hment, like crime, is historically and culturally contingent (Newburn 2007:15). However, Pratt (2007) argues that one of the limits of penal populism is that the publics desire for punishment is not insatiable. Penal populism is an emotional response to terrible, often rare, crimes that generate intense media attention (Roberts et al. 2003: 9). The entanglement of politics and media creates an environment encouraging politicians to offer quick solutions for the most serious crimes (Roberts et al. 2003: 36). Furthermore, highly punitive policies are provoked by penal populism, reflecting a position of outrage rather than rationally considering the policy options in relation to offending (Roberts et al. 2003: 36). Penal populism is a product of social and cultural changes and the rise of penal populism reflects a fundamental shift in the axis of contemporary penal power brought about by these changes (Pratt 2007: 3). Penal populism stems from the lack of faith in the government, the decline of deference and the growth of ontological insecurity, along with new media technologies helping to spread it (Pratt 2007: i). There are a number of issues that require further examination according to Matthews (2005); definition, aetiology and the relation between punitiveness and other dominant trends in penal policy such as managerialism, which are seen to involve different and even oppositional currents (Matthews 2005: 178). Similar problems are encountered with the term bifurcation, viewing the penal system as a twin track or bifurcated system with coercive and segregative controls on the one side and inclusive community-based controls on the other is too restrictive (Matthews 2005: 181). Managerialism is a set of techniques and practices which aim to fracture and realign relations of power within the criminal justice system in order to transform the structures and reorganize the processes (McLaughlin 2001: 169). Managerialism focuses on the operation of the system rather than the treatment of victims and suspects and there is an emphasis on results, targets and performance indicators. The main change in penal policy has not been towards more emotive or expressive punishments but the development of more administrative and impersonal styles of regulation (Matthews 2005: 188). According to Matthews (2005: 185) new styles of managerialism have been introduced, which appear to develop alongside punitiveness, and the role they have played in shaping the criminal justice system has been widely reported. Penal policies are developed by governments in line with the sentiments and aspirations of the general public rather than their own bureaucratic organizations (Pratt 2007: i). Populist sentiments veer toward a more punitive response to crime and the expansion of the media has been critical in fuelling public sentiments and creating the conditions in which retribution and vengeance can more readily be expressed (Matthews 2005: 181). Newburn states that the politics of law and order are played out and stimulated by the media with crime becoming staple newspaper fodder (Newburn 2007: 15). The way the media highlights certain crimes and events, influences not only the general public but also politicians and policy makers who have come to rely on the media as the voice of public opinion (Green 2009 : 527). Within the criminal justice system there is an abundance of experts that are not only able to influence policy making but also to mediate the demands of the public (Matthews 2005: 189). However, Pratt (2007: i) argues that there has been less reliance on academic expertise and penal populism has been allowed by governments to impact on policy development. The public have been able to articulate their views and also influence how penal policy is developed, moreover, the publics hostility towards paedophiles and acts of vigilantism are often taken as an indication of intrinsic public punitiveness (Matthews 2005: 188). The media then encourage and stimulate public concern, in their search for a scapegoat on whom to focus their attention, resulting in a further increase in the sale of newspapers, also an increase in viewing figures (Matthews 2005: 188). Penal populism has not only set new policy agendas it has also radically redefined official opinions on crime and punishment (Pratt 2007: 28). It is in the development of policy on sex offenders that it has had most influence (Pratt 2007), with close parallels in the media and political rhetoric concerning the risk posed by paedophiles (Newburn and Jones 2005: 73). According to Matthews (2005: 194), much has been made of the campaigns and legislation that have been passed to address the issue of paedophiles. Sara Paynes daughter was abducted and murdered in 2000 by Roy Whiting, she called on the then Home Secretary to change the law regarding paedophiles. Campaigning for Sarahs Law to allow restricted public access to the sex offenders register (BBC 2008), partially inspired by Megans Law, introduced in New Jersey after the rape and murder of Megan Kanka in 1994. With the support of the News of the World, Sara Payne and the Sarahs Law campaign fought for parents to have the right to know if there was a child sex offender living in their area (Ryan 2003: 127). It also called for high risk paedophiles to be included in sex offender orders, those that previously did not fall within the sex offender registration requirements; for the right of victims to know why this or that sentence has been passed; and to be informed of the release date of those who had abused them (Ryan 2003: 127). There was criticism from some police forces and child care agencies fearing vigilante attacks (BBC 2008), moreover, in 2000 on the Paulsgrove estate in Portsmouth suspected paedophiles and their families were victims of vigilante attacks and a paediatrician was forced to leave her home and neighbourhood after her house was attacked (Ryan 2003: 127). This was prompted by the News of the World publishing the names and pictures of convicted paedophiles on the back of the Sara Payne campaign (Ryan 2003: 127). The publics response to this moral panic was, according to Ryan (2003) instructive and there was widespread condemnation of the violence, even the News of the World argued that it was counter-productive (Ryan 2003: 127). Hard cases make bad law, and spectacular cases make knee-jerk policy (Walker 2002: v). Including those mentioned previously and others, such as the introduction of Multi Agency Protection Panels and preventing offenders from contacting victims (For Sarah 2009), there have since been 15 pieces of legislation introduced as a direct result of Sara Paynes work (Moorhead 2009); the News of The World claim 14 of those are as a result of their campaign (For Sarah 2009). Furthermore, Sarahs Law pilot schemes, allowing controlled access to information about paedophiles, are now being extended (Topping 2009). Politicians are aware of the depth of public feeling and they use rhetoric and symbolism to imply support for stronger measures regarding notification, at the same time as bowing to the professional judgement and influence of criminal justice practitioners (Jones and Newburn 2002: 196). Criminal laws and penal measures that are named after victims, such as Megans Law and the campaign for Sarahs Law, use the plight of the victim to legitimate more extensive controls and new punitive measures (Hoyle and Zedner 2007: 473). Pratt (2007) questions the effects on criminal justice policy when policy is driven by popular public anxiety, the refutation of evidence based policy is questionably less concerned with proven effectiveness than with what the public want. Penal populism has enabled new policy agendas to be created, redefined official opinions on crime and punishment and Pratt (2007) states that it is in the development of policy on sex offenders that it has been most influential. The public, politicians and policy makers are influenced by events that the media highlight, with the politics of law and order frequently being played out and stimulated in the media. Despite the abundance of experts able to influence policy making, there has been less reliance on the expertise of academics and governments have allowed penal populism to impact on policy development (Pratt 2007). Word count: 1630

Essay --

Mexican Independence ( Rough draft ) Have you ever thought of something you're so curious about? Something that your curiosity runs completely insane because you need the full information or a full story about what really happened or how did it happen ? Well I did, When a research paper was assigned about Spanish Culture I was only Interested into one topic and thats the History or background oh how the Mexican People receive their Independence. Like how America had it’s own story of its independence. Independence is about Freedom, the freedom to do what you want or to be who you are. Well like any other culture independence was very important to the spanish people, I believe its a celebration way bigger than an event like Cinco De Mayo. I believe it’s one of the most important events for the spanish people, and here’s why! During the early nineteenth century , Mexico was slightly influence by the country U.S and France as they seek for their Independence. They began to plan or thought about a rebellion against spain. One of the famous people involve in this event was Father Miguel Hidalgo who was from Dolores, Mexico . Father Hidalgo was one of the main leaders in the rallying group of people seeking for Independence against Spain. As time passes by Hidalgo and his people during the year 1810 of late fall Hidalgo and his people were already planning a revolt against spain. The Spanish people found out about the revolt which led the Spanish Government to order the arrest of Hidalgo and his officers. When Hidalgo found out, he called a meeting at his church. He rang the church bell on the night of September 15, 1810 to call his congregation to mass. Here Father Hidalgo rallied the people to fight. He gave the speec... ...ime all across Mexico. While the crowd says this they fill the air with confetti, streamers and hoopla. Castillos explode in showers of red, white, and green. The actual day of September 16 is similar to July Fourth in the US. There are rodeos, parades, bullfights, horseback rider performances and grand feasts. The statues in memory of Father Hidalgo are decorated with red, white, and green flowers. The Mexican Flag is made up of green, white, and red. The green is on the left side of the flag and symbolizes independence. White is the color in the middle of the flag and symbolizes religion. The red is on the right side of the flag and symbolizes union. These colors are used often in decorating for the Mexican Independence Day fiesta. September 16 is a very remarkable day for the spanish tribe it’s because it’s the day they receive their freedom from spain.

The Striding Apis Bull Essay -- essays papers

The Striding Apis Bull The Apis Bull originated in Memphis, cult of Serapis during the reign of Ptolemy I. Serapis was the god whose association with Osiris, the god of the dead, formed the name Asar-Hapi. Asar is the Egyptian name of Osiris and Hapi was the name given to the Apis Bull which was the object of worship at Memphis. The Greeks combined the two together to form Zaparrus. Even though it is not quite clear, it is certain that Serapis is the shape Apis took after death. â€Å"Apis is called the â€Å"life of Osiris, the lord of heaven, tem (with) his horns (in) his head .†He is said to give life, strength, and health to thy nostrils forever.† At the beginning of the new Empire Osiris and Apis are united by priests of Memphis to represent a funeral character which, at the time, was considered a god of the underworld. This character that was considered to be the god of the underworld was the Apis Bull. There are several different Egyptian myths about the â€Å"Apis Bull†. However, the most common myths of the Apis Bull are alike. â€Å"In one myth Apis assisted Isis, Osiris’s wife, in searching for the body of Osiris. It was believed by the ancient Egyptians that the bull’s fecundity and generative powers could be transformed to the deceased, ensuring him or her rebirth in the next life.† In another Egyptian myth it was said that an Apis Bull was born of a virgin cow that was impregnated by Ptah. â€Å"The Bull could be recognized by a peculiar white mark on his neck, a rump t...

The Seven Deadly Sins: Seen, Heard, and Felt Essay -- Seven Deadly Sin

The Seven Deadly Sins: Seen, Heard, and Felt  Ã‚      The play of Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe concentrates very highly on ideas of evil. Marlowe uses many aspects of evil to show the downfall of the somewhat odd man, Faustus. Devices including irony, foreshadowing, and symbolism are used very effectively in the play to convey feelings of sympathy and remorse for Faustus. Actually seeing a production of this play would further assist in an understanding of exactly what Faustus was faced with in his moments of severe weakness. By actually seeing a rendition of what Faustus was faced with, members of the audience can question themselves about what they would have done if they were Faustus. Act 2, Scene 2, lines 115-117 is a very good place to help an audience feel what Faustus was feeling and seeing. Script Doctor Faustus appears as a tall lanky man, with dark brown hair, which lies close to his head, and curls up at the ends. His moustache is trimmed close to his upper lip. Faustus plays with the moustache frequently during this scene. He wears a plain black suit, a white dress shirt with a plain black necktie and polished shoes. He is adorned only with one piece of jewelry, a wristwatch. Faustus needs to be a man who looks simple enough to fall prey to the Devils' plans. He can not look too strong or stupid either, because a man of either of those qualities would not fall into the Devil's trap. He must look like an everyday sort of man in order for the audience to be able to relate to him, and to place themselves in his experience, and learn from the experience. Belzebub and Lucifer are tall, dark, lavish looking men. They have very strong shoulders and use them to make their appearances very solid and unwav... ... Sins. Explanation This version of the scene is set in the nineteen-eighties. This is done so a modern audience should be able to relate the sins more directly to themselves. If this was not done, then some members of the audience might not be able to relate at all to the play's messages. Many of the costumes used could not be relevant to members of other societies either. People living in Europe would not necessarily understand the significance of a man dressed in sloppy jeans and a t-shirt as a normal everyday sight in many American homes. Hopefully some of the images used in this version of the play will serve as a wake-up call to those people who may be falling towards "the Devil" and can avoid the bitter end that Doctor Faustus reached.    Works Cited Marlowe, Christopher. "Doctor Faustus." New York: Penguin Group, 1969.            

Marketing Assignment

We want from our target market to make a habit of eating their meals in our restaurants. If we are able to reach them, this will help us to grow at the end of the first year. In addition to this, we have another objective which is to decrease the number of people who are not aware and people who are resisting to not purchase our goods. In this case, we are planning to encourage them to taste our products and take their opinions about them to adjust our goods according to their needs and wants. Stressing our competitive advantage to our target customers is our another goal which makes them loyal to our restaurants.Identify the marketing segment for the product and explain why this segment was selected. Because we are producing healthy fast foods for different diet programs, mass marketing does not fit our marketing strategy. Therefore we segment the market based on Demographics. For example, if gender is taken into consideration, woman and man should take different amount of calories per day in order to carry on their daily activities. Besides, amount of calories are taken by young people, adults, and elderly people changes as well according to their heights, weights, and activity levels.Therefore when our customers come to our restaurants, they should be able to find a food that best fits their diet in order to be satisfied. Moreover, we also segment the market based on geographic as well. In this case, we are planning to run our business in United States because there is a high demand for healthy foods since people want to live healthy and longer. Discuss the target market and why these customers will be targeted. We segmented market according to people’s ages and genders. We decided to target people whose ages are between 18 and 64 or more and tried to figure out the market size.According to US and World Population Clocks in the US Census Bureau web page, there are 309,092,421 people living in America now. Again, according to the report posted on US Ce nsus Bureau, Meyer (2001) stated that people whose age is under 18 is 26 percent, people whose age is between 18 and 64 is 62 percent and people whose age is more than 64 is 12 percent of US population. So if we assume that the percentage of people whose ages are between 18 and 64 or more remain unchanged from 2000 to 2010, the total population of young people, adults and elderly people is now 228,728,319. 62%+12%=74%, 309,092,421? 74%). Moreover, if we assume that 50 percent of this amount is woman and 50 percent of it man. So we have 114,364,159 men and 114,364,159 women whose ages are between 18 and 64 or more. This is a huge number and it seems that targeting this segment is profitable. Furthermore, this market size can grow in the future because in 2000 the total US population was approximately 281 million according to US Census Bureau 2000 report. (Meyer 2001). Today, as I mentioned above it is nearly 309 million. Conduct a SWOT (strength, weakness, opportunities and treats an alysis for company.One of our strengths is offering healthy foods. Our menu contains foods that they are rich in terms of protein, vitamins, mineral etc. which play an important role in the structure of human body. Secondly, while we are preparing our menu, we consult nutritionists about the ingredients, the types to enhance the variety and cooking techniques. In addition to this, our customers can benefit from the dietician service on every Mondays, and Fridays between 1-5pm. They can ask their questions and have a chance to take medical support. Moreover, we are using organic and fresh foods while we are cooking and these vegetables and ruits are produced and picked diligently. This is also one of our strengths that help us to meet our customers’ expectations. Unfortunately, we have also some weaknesses as well. One of the most important weaknesses of our healthy fast food restaurant is our prices. To produce organic vegetables and fruits is very costly. Therefore this is r eflected in prices of those kinds of products. Because organic foods are crucial ingredients of our foods, we also have to reflect the prices of vegetables and fruits to our food prices in order to make profit.In addition to this, because we do not offer any unhealthy foods such as fried chicken, fried potato, hamburger etc. our foods may not fit the people’s tastes. Beside our strengths and weaknesses, we have also some opportunities coming from macro environment. Firstly, people love eating in Unites States and they like to know about different and new foods. In addition to this, United States is the best place to run a fast food restaurant because of being a home country of fast food industry. Secondly, number of obese people is increasing day by day in United States because of overeating fast foods.Since these kinds of meals are unhealthy and they can cause serious health problems, this makes people more conscious while they are making decision about food choices. Therefo re they tend to eat more healthy foods. Thirdly, organic food industry is growing in Unites States and people tend to consume organic foods because of being healthful compared to regular vegetables and fruits. Furthermore, number one fast food chains such as McDonald’s, Burger King, etc. do not offer rich healthy meals alternative to unhealthy ones. In this case, consumers are in pursuit of healthy food restaurants.Lastly, in United States technology is advanced a lot to prepare fast and healthy foods. This leads fast food restaurants to work more efficient. We also have some threats caused by macro environment as well. For example, people may not have enough purchasing power to buy healthy foods. In this case unhealthy foods seems cheaper to them. Therefore they may tend to prefer unhealthy fast food restaurants. Besides, organic foods are expensive. As a result, restaurants that are not using organic foods charge lower prices to their meals compared to restaurants that use those kinds of egetables and fruits. Moreover, eating hamburger, fried potato, fried chicken, cheese burger, etc. can seem more attractive to customers. Therefore customers may prefer places that offer those foods. Describe the market position for your product and service When we are positioning our product, the quality and the price are taken into consideration and we compared our product with the one that is produced by our competitors. In the fast food market, we have many competitors; however our number one and well known competitors are McDonalds, Burger King, Subway, Taco Bell, Wendy’s and others.In figure one, circles which are depicted closely represent our competitors and the upper circle represents our fast food company. The competitors’ circles are depicted closely because they are perceived more or less the same by consumers. For example, their menus and prices are more or less the same. They are using nearly same strategies. For instance, both Burger King and McDonalds have the dollar menus. Although our competitors offer some kinds of healthy foods such as salads, grilled chicken, etc. they are still selling unhealthy foods.On the other hand, our company’s number one strength is always serving healthy foods to our customers. Besides, we are offering free dietician service for our customers. Our customers can ask their questions and get a customized service. In light of these facts, our product quality is high relative to our competitors. price X’s Healthy Fast Food Restaurant Low qualityHigh quality Our competitors Figure 1 Perceptual Map In addition to our product quality, our products’ prices are also higher than the average prices as well. Because organic foods’ prices are high, we have to reflect this to our prices.According to figure 1 it can be seen that our competitors dominate us in terms of prices. However, we also dominate them in terms of product quality as well. Recommendations Service is an i ntangible product and X’s Healthy Fast Food Restaurants are producing both tangible product (i. e. food) and intangible product (i. e. dietician service). In service industry customer satisfaction is very important. If a company satisfies their customer’s needs and wants, they become loyal.Therefore management should know whether their customers are happy with the service provided or not. This is the case that X’s Healthy Fast Food Restaurant can be face with. Therefore we should do some surveys to measure the satisfaction level of our customers about the service quality. There are many tools to do this. For example, Winner (2004) stated that â€Å"One of the most popular approaches to measuring service quality is the SERVQUAL instrument† (p. 418). In this type of questionnaire there are several questions that measure the quality of service.If we put servqual surveys on customers’ table and request to fill them after they finish their meal we can m easure the satisfaction level of our customers by looking the results and this helps us to improve our service quality. Because service is an intangible product, customers may not know what they are buying until they buy. One author said that â€Å"†¦the service provider’s task is to make the service tangible in one or more ways† (Kotler 1999 p. 648). In this case, we should find some ways to make our product tangible.For example, if we give importance to keep our restaurants clean, our customers may think that we prepare our foods diligently. Providing a qualified and quick service can be another way to make our product tangible. If consumers see how we deliver our service quickly, they always prefer us.References Kotler, P. (1999). Principles of marketing. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Winner, S. R. (2004). Marketing management: New Jersey Pearson Prentice Hall Meyer, J. (2001). Age:2000. US Census Bureau. Retrieved April 8, 2010 from http://www. census. gov/prod/20 01pubs/c2kbr01-12. pdf Marketing Assignment International market segmentation (International market segmentation) is the concept of market segmentation in the use of international marketing. Its concept is by comparing the domestic and international market for more buyers, a wider distribution. With businesses having limited power, it is usually very complex to meet the needs of worldwide customers. A market segment is defined as â€Å"a group of customers who share a similar set of needs and wants†. In this case its HSBC trying to target potential customers. The first key consideration is the benefits of segmentation. This segmentation uses customers as a point of reference.The firm can then focus on their marketing resources and it gives them competitive advantage by being able to serve more according to customer segments. There are four level of segmentation, first one is preference segments. Some consumers have a very different taste for the things that they want. Consumers are free to prefer HSBC or other banks ava ilable in the market. A group of people gathered their preference will show the natural segments. Second level of segmentation is niche. It is defined as a more narrowly defined customer group seeking a distinctive mix of benefits.HSBC in this case targets consumer niches with distinctive products and services. It is proved by having a pet insurance product, growing at a 125% per year. Third level is local,which involves local customer groups in trading areas, neighborhoods and even industrial stores . HSBC is actually focusing at serving local markets. They maintain to have local presence in the area with the tagline which is â€Å"world’s local bank†. Last level is individual, customer with HSBC bank card, etc will get a ride in the BankCab. The next step is to segment the consumer markets.The fundamentals to consider are geographic, demographic, psychographic and behavioural. Geographic segmentation means dividing market into different geographical units such as nat ions, states, regions, cities or neighbors. HSBC demonstrated its local knowledge with marketing efforts dedicated to specific locations. In 2005, it set out to prove to jaded New Yorkers that the London-based financial behemoth was a bank with local-knowledge. Demographic segmentation means â€Å"dividing by age and life cycle, life stage, gender, income, generation and different social class†.HSBC offered a â€Å"smart card† and no frills credit cards to the underserved student segment and targeted high-value customers with special â€Å"Premium Centers† bank branches. Psychographic segmentation is segmentation depending on the person itself on primary motivation such an ideals and achievements. Last element is behavioral segmentation. This is segmenting â€Å"based on decision roles such as intiator, influencer, decider, buyer and user. † As for behavioural it consists of occasions, benefits, user status, user rate, buyer-readiness, loyalty status and attitude. The second key to be considered is target marketing.It develops measures of market attractiveness and select target segments. For example, â€Å"selecting the most profitable segments to focus on†. HSBC target student segment by offering â€Å"smart card† and high-value customers with special â€Å"Premium Centers† bank branches. Steps in segmentation process include need-based segmentation, segment identification, segment attractiveness, segment profitability, segment positioning, segment acid test and market mix strategy. â€Å"To be useful, market segments must rate favorably on five key criteria which are measurable, substantial, accessible, differentiable and actionable. †The third key to be considered is the market positioning. Positioning is done by targeting segments and develops a marketing mix for each segment. For example â€Å"creating an image or position for the brand with competitors’ brands†. For example HSBC wants to be known as the â€Å"world’s local bank†. This tagline reflects HSBC’s positioning as a globe-spanning financial institution specialised on serving local markets. Strategy for positioning includes, â€Å"Identifying a set of possible competitive advantages on which to build a position†, choosing the right competitive advantages and selecting an overall positioning strategy

Communication needs Essay

1.1 Explain the importance of meeting an individual’s communication needs. Answer People communicate because they need to let others know what they want and feel, as well as to find things out and get answers to their question and to pass on information and give direction. Communication is a basic human right. Without communication the individual is unable to realise or exercise their rights. Under the human rights act 1998 all individuals have the right to freedom of expression. Without identifying and supporting the individuals communication needs many may be denied their rights. The right of and individual is also up held in (GSCC) General Social Care Council. In order to effectively support an individual with his or her communication we must have a thorough understanding of their needs. All individuals have a right to communication and we are governed by standards, codes of practice, guidelines, morals and law to ensure those communication needs are met. Read more: Essay About Support Individuals with Specific Communication Needs 1.2 Explain how own role and practice can impact on communication with an individual who has specific communication needs. Answer It is true that a person’s own beliefs and experiences could affect working practice or affect my role as a healthcare worker. However, as a  professional health care worker, it is part of my responsibilities to treat all service users equally and never allow my personal beliefs affect my role. Imposing my own beliefs and experiences is not acceptable in the healthcare practice and would be against the standard codes of practice, and organisational policies. Example giving preferential treatment to service user because I like them more than others, treating a client differently because we have the same or different religion, different values as regards personal hygiene, different sexual orientation. Furthermore, treating a service user badly because in the past I have had a bad experience with perhaps people of such colour, race or people of his/her personalities is against the practice. The Human Rights Act 1998, The Race Relations, Act 1976 amended 2000, The Sex Discrimination Act 1975. Equal Opportunities Act 2004 and the Equality Act of 2010 are all legislations that relate to equality and diversity in my own practice. These acts are about meeting and respecting the individual needs. As a healthcare worker it is my responsibly to strictly adhere and follow these guidelines. This ensure that all clients are treated equally irrespective of their colour, age, disability, gender, religion and belief and sexual orientation . It is my duties to offer a non judgemental, non bias service because of individual client beliefs. 1.3 Analyse features of the environment that may help or hinder communication. Answer Noise levels of the environment. Are they conducive to communication if an individual is hard of hearing therefore it is best to reduce the noise level or move to a quieter area to improved communication. Large groups could have a negative effective on communication if everyone is engage in a lively discussion, it best to move to a smaller group. Good/poor lighting someone with poor vision may find it difficult to see especially if they have hearing problem and relied on reading your lips as opposed to good lighting which would alleviate any anxieties and stress and reduced miscommunication as a result of having good lighting. Privacy or lack of it, offering a individual a private environment to have a conversation with someone on a one to one basic would allowed the individual to set across from you face to face, where the level of communication can be calm, timely and clear have opportunities to clarify things they are not sure about and enable clarity. focusing on the individual,space and positioning when communicating, body language and eye contact when communicating, giving individuals sufficient time to communicate, using the individual’s preferred means of communication and language, checking that you and the individuals understand the communication when communicating. No disruption/disruption, distraction example, TV off or on and even temperature is it just right or too hot/cold etc. as all these elements can have a negative or positive impact on communication. Physical- refers to the environment surrounding the participants in the communication process; for example: (good) good ventilation, chairs and other materials are properly arrange, temperature is set just right, the place or venue is presentable..etc. (bad) a very noisy place, air pollution, the place is very dirty and the materials for the event is not properly arrange, poor ventilation. 1.4 Analyze reasons why an individual may use a form of communication that is not based on a formal language system. Answer There are lots of different ways to communicate. We use all of our five senses to communicate and receive information: Visual-seeing, Auditory -hearing, Olfactory – smelling, Kin- aesthetic -feeling, Gustatory -tasting. Could be due to hearing difficulties, in which case they will use sign language, another could be because of learning problems, and these people use a form of body language , some might use their eyes, whilst others communicate by making facial expressions or sounds or even pointing. A further reason could be due to a severe medical condition, and in some of these cases the individual can learn to use electronic equipment to communicate It is important to learn about communication forms. Once we recognize the communication we can respond to it and begin shaping it into a more formal or easier to understand form of communication. 1.5 Identify a range of communication methods and aids to support individuals to communicate. Answer There are three main forms of communication, verbal, non-verbal and the written word. Verbal communication Verbal communication uses words to present ideas, thoughts and feelings. Good verbal communication is the ability to both explain and present your ideas clearly through the spoken word, and to listen carefully to other people. This will involve using a variety of approaches and styles appropriate to the Individual you are addressing. Non-verbal communication This refers to the messages we send out to express ideas and opinions without  talking. This might be through the use of body language, facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice, touch or contact, signs, symbols, pictures, objects and other visual aids. It is very important to be able to recognise what a person’s body language is saying, especially when as a health or social care worker you are dealing with someone who is in pain, worried or upset. You must also be able to understand the messages you send with your own body when working with other people. Body language – The way we sit or stand, which is called posture, can  send messages. Slouching on a chair can show a lack of interest in what is going on and folded arms can suggest that you are feeling negative or defensive about a person or situation. Even the way we move can give out messages, e.g. shaking your head while someone else is talking might indicate that you disagree with them or waving your arms around can indicate you are excited. Facial expression – We can often tell what someone is feeling by their  eyes. Our eyes become wider when we are excited or happy, attracted to, or interested in someone. A smile shows we are happy and a frown shows we are annoyed. Touch or contact – Touching another person can send messages  of care, affection, power or sexual interest. It is important to think about the setting you are in and what you are trying to convey before touching a person in a health and social care environment. An arm around a child who is upset about something in hospital or a nursery can go a long way to making them feel better but a teenager might feel intimidated by such contact from an older person. Signs, symbols and pictures – There are certain common signs or  gestures that most people automatically recognise. For example, a wave of the hand can mean hello or goodbye and a thumbs up can mean that all is well. Pictures of all forms and objects also communicate messages; an X-ray and a model of a knee joint can more easily communicate to someone needing a knee replacement exactly what is involved. Written communication This is central to the work of any person providing a service in a health and social care environment when keeping records and in writing reports. Different types of communication need different styles of writing but all require literacy skills. A more formal style of writing is needed when recording information about a client. Technological aids Technology is moving so quickly now that we have many electronic aids to help us communicate. For example, mobile phones can be used to make calls but we can also use them to send text messages and emails; and we have computers on which we can record, store and communicate information very quickly and efficiently over long distances. Some aids can turn small movements into written word and then into speech, such as the voice box most famously used by the scientist, Professor Stephen Hawking. mobile phones: these are generally affordable and available to the population at large, making them more accessible than computers and far more cost-effective. They have many uses in health and social care. For example, they enable emergency response teams to coordinate their efforts, allow a surgical team to contact someone awaiting an organ transplant, gather and send information etc. They are especially important in health and social care in developing countries, where people may live several days’ walk from the nearest doctor. telephone amplifier: these are devices that amplify, or make louder, the ring tone of a phone so that people who are hard of hearing and maybe use a hearing aid can hear the phone more clearly. They also amplify the volume of the person speaking on the other end by up to 100%. Other devices on telephones include flashing lights so someone who is hard of hearing can see  that the phone is ringing. hearing loops – a hearing loop system helps deaf people who use a hearing aid These means of communication are used for transferring information from one entity to the other, and always involve a sender and receiver. The cycle of communication is said to be complete only when the receiver has understood the sender’s message and intent. 1.6 Describe the potential effects on an individual of having unmet communication needs. Answer Having difficulties expressing on self can lead to both physical and emotional problems. Individuals who experience a gradual loss of effective communication may become increasingly withdrawn, depressed or isolated. These emotions reduce the individual’s self-esteem as they start to develop feeling of frustration and uselessness. The individual’s behaviour may change as they vent their frustrations with acts of anger or even violence. An individual, who is born deft or lose their hearing while they are young, may well have built their own society in the Deft Community based on communication through sign language. But someone who has lived in the hearing community for most of their life, then loses their hearing in later life, may feel they have no place where they can fit in. some individuals who have not received the required support to communicate effectively may become indifferent to others. They may begin to feel that there is no point in trying to express themselves, their needs or their views, when no one appears to be listening or attempting to understand them. Unsupported communication needs can result in the individual being denied their rights. As a society, if we deny an individual their rights in life we are in effect abusing that individual. 2.2 Contribute to identifying the communication methods or aids that will best suit individual. Answer At my day centre I contribute to aiding the communication needs of my service users by: Cultural needs: dietary needs of a number of service users are varied so it is essential that those who have special dietary needs are meet to help maintained and help them stay healthy example. Diabetic not given too much sugar or sweet, or those with hypertension watch the amount of salt intake in their diet identified and cultural norms of using the left hand is frown up on. Religious needs: Ensures those who practice their faith are given the opportunity to engage in such practice on a weekly basic. By providing this service to them. One page profile: Indicate the individual like and preferences and what is important to the individual and how best to meet their needs. Body language: Through developing a working relationship with an individual I am able to understand a number of cues with indicate what or how they are feeling through, facial expression, gestures that indicate that the individual is upset annoyed or confused example when an individual look at family photos they want to talk or visit their love ones. Key working: thought working with the individual and family to establish person centre approaches. Which entails their hope dreams and aspiration. Language barrier: ensuring the individual have someone to help will their language needs if their first language is not English. Technical aids: Ensuring individual have the access to hearing aid, optician to provide them with aiding with visual needs to improved their communication needs. Talking books,and large printed and Bridle books and other technical aids to help with their communication needs through partnership work with deft blind society who provide magazine to informed and update service users and their family on the latest aids that would best suit their needs. Monthly magazine leaflet: Informing and updating service users on all the activities that has taken place and will be happening at the centre. By taking photos of all the various events we are enabling service user are seeing hearing and reading all that is taking place in the day centre. Example who celebrated their birth day, what events will be happing inside and outside of the centre and pictures of who attended. Notice board: Service user are able to see and read about events and obtained information that is of interest to them or others they can shared with. Informing service users: Provide service users with Information and Advice as to where and how to obtain information on other services and community resources they can get access to. Staff meeting: Report and shared concerned information that has been disclosed or observation about service user that will benefit or aid their communication needs 2.3 Explain how and when to access information and support about identifying and addressing specific communication needs. OR 1.1What is communication? Communication is the giving and receiving of information. It is the foundation of what we do in everyday life. What we say, how we say it and what we do communicates a multitude of messages that are given and received consciously and subconsciously by using different communication methods. People communicate with you because they have something they want you to know or something they want you to tell them. We communicate to share information and ideas. The key point to remember is that everyone is different. We all think differently and communicate in different ways. The people you are supporting will communicate because they are motivated by what they need 2.2 Understand a range of communication methods and styles that could help meet an individual’s communication needs, wishes and preferences There are lots of different Ways to communicate. We use all of our five senses to communicate and receive information: ï‚ · Visual – seeing Auditory – hearing Olfactory – smelling Kinaesthetic – feeling Gustatory – tasting Verbal communication Vocabulary, words and different languages Tone of voice Pitch (for example, high or low Non-verbal communication Eye contact Signs, symbols or pictures Writing Using objects Touch Physical gestures Body language and emotions Lip reading Recognise barriers to effective communication Here are some of the different barriers to consider: Sensory impairment (for example, deafness, blindness or both) Culture (for example, speaking different languages or poor English) Religion (for example, men not permitted to support females with personal care) Health issues (for example, mental ill health like Dementia) Background noise (for example, radio, television, other people, machines) Emotions (for example, difficulty in being able to listen to others) Stress (for example, failing to recognise what is happening) Strong accents (for example, from a different part of England that you find difficult to understand) Specialist communication techniques (for example, sign language is used) Prejudice (for example, allowing your beliefs to pre judge a situation) Be aware of ways to reduce barriers to effective communication Hearing Loss Hearing loss is an invisible disability, so it can become a big communication barrier. Hearing impaired people have to concentrate very hard to pick up information in stages and written information. Aids that can help these people are hearing aids, sign language, lip reading, loop systems, interpreters. It is important to limit background noise to avoid distraction. You should always make sure they can see you clearly and particularly your face as they may be able to lip read. They may also use sign language which you may need to consider learning if you will be working together regularly. Loss of Sight This can make a person extremely disorientated if they are in a strange place or they lose their glasses. When supporting a person who is blind or has limited visibility, verbal communication increases in importance. Always ensure the individual can hear you clearly. It may be appropriate to use touch to reassure them of your presence. You might need to explain things in more detail because they are unable to see your expressions and body LANGUAGE Language Barriers and Accents It can be difficult to communicate with a person who does not speak English, you may need to use picture boards, actions or an interpreter so you can communicate appropriately. Dementia and Confusion When supporting someone with Dementia be aware that even basic forms of communication may be difficult for them to understand and interpret. Use short sentences. Use names rather than he or she. Avoid open ended questions. Use closed questions, for example, rather than say â€Å"what would you like?† say â€Å"would you like this or that?† Dysphasic These individuals have usually had a stroke and may get very frustrated when trying to communicate. A speech therapist may be involved with their support and may be able to suggest ways of making things easier. Physical Disabilities Individuals may have had accidents which have changed their abilities. Some people will have previously had no disabilities and others will have always had disabilities. Some people with physical disabilities may have difficulty speaking, for example, people who may have had strokes or conditions like cerebral palsy. Others with physical disabilities may be able to communicate perfectly well in speech. You should never make judgements about individual’s capabilities in any way and don’t forget everyone is different. Cultural Differences Commonly used gestures can sometimes have different meanings in other cultures. Familiarise yourself with the cultures of those you are caring for so you are able to treat them with respect. In some cultures, men and women are not allowed to speak to each other if they are not known to each other and this could present difficulties when trying to provide care and support. A female may not want a male carer and a male may not want a female carer The Environment Consider the type of environment in which you are working. Is there lots of noise around you. Can the noise be reduced or removed altogether. Are other people making too much noise and preventing you from communicating with an individual. In an individual’s home, you may find pets or other distractions like the television being on too loud. You should also make sure that people who have particular aids to help them communicate are using these, for example hearing aids and glasses. It can often be difficult to concentrate on a conversation if the individual needs to go to the toilet. Always check the individual is comfortable. Confidence / Self Esteem If an individual lacks confidence and / or self esteem, they may find it difficult to express themselves. Lots of patience and encouragement is needed as well as regular praise to increase their confidence and the way they feel about themselves 1.5 Be aware of sources of information and support or services to enable more  effective communication There will be lots of different types of support and services that can help you and the individuals you support to improve your communication skills. Some of these services are: ï‚ · Translators Interpreters, sign language and lip speakers Speech and language specialists Advocacy services